Critically Assess the Difference between Labour Standards and Labour Assignment

Critically Assess the Difference between Labour Standards and Labour Rights with Reference to the Work of the International Lab - Assignment Example Introduction The United Nations was established in 1945 to maintain global peace, â€Å"to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom†.1 It discharges its functions effectively through the working of a number of specialized organizations like the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) that aims to reduce hunger and poverty by developing agriculture and â€Å"providing healthy dietary intake†2 , the World Health Organization (WHO) that strives for the control and eradication of diseases, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) that works for monetary cooperation among nations and many more.3 One such organization is th e International Labour Organization (ILO) that promotes social justice for laborers and aims to elevate the standards of labor rights and practices. ... bor compensation, social insurance, paid vacation, safety of industrial workers, employment service and labor inspection†.5 The achievements of the ILO in the pursuit of its objectives have been many like the ‘Tripartite Meeting on Safety and Health’ in the fishing industry in 1998-99 that set safety standards for fishermen.6 However, the deviation of the actual labor standards in comparison to the labor rights stated by the ILO is a subject seeking great evaluation. In this context, research in labor policies initiated by the ILO is of considerable relevance. The paper will presently address this problem of divergence of labor practices from the standard labor rights given by ILO. Labour Standards of the ILO The labor standards theoretically stated by the ILO are reflective of its objectives and goals but whether or not these standards are applied in reality, in case of all member nations, is debatable. Statement of Labour Rights In 1995, five broad fundamental ri ghts were identified by the ILO, addressing men, women and children workers of the world. They are freedom of association, right to organize and bargain collectively, freedom from forced labor, right to equal remuneration and non-discrimination in employment and the abolition of child labor.7 Freedom of Association implies that workers have the right to associate with one another and form unions or groups for the pursuit of a common objective or goal. The common objective is usually something aimed at improving the conditions of work for the laborers.8 Freedom to organize and bargain collectively states that the workers have the right to organize themselves into trade unions and other organizations. Collective bargaining occurs between these bodies and the management of a company on a variety of issues

Ded na si Lolo Essay Example for Free

Ded na si Lolo Essay We all know that Filipinos are very â€Å"traditional people†. What I mean about this term is that once they already have this certain belief, true-to-life or fictional, they would still have a very strong hold for it. The movie â€Å"Ded na si Lolo† certainly showed that kind of attitude that a Filipino has. The characters of the movie really portrayed well how those myths and beliefs affected our normal way of living. Even though some others will find it strange and impossible to happen, they still continue to do it for an unexplainable reason. There are some beliefs given in the movie that I find feasible and some others are just questionable. For the â€Å"kind of okay† myths, the first one is the â€Å"Don’t wear red during funerals†. For me this is some sort of related to our customs, because as we all know, red is a happy color and of course we should not wear it during the funeral but instead, wear colors representing our sympathy or grief like black or white. Another one is the â€Å"Don’t use the condolence money for ones expenses†. It’s very simple, all people who gave it intended it for the dead one, so don’t abuse. Instead of using it for your luxuries, own budget and the like, use it as a food and snack budget for the visitors, funeral expenses and everything that has relation with the funeral of the person. All of what I’ve stated is not only what I think a belief for us Filipinos but also plain custom and right practice which is humanly. For the questionable myths, there are concepts that I really don’t understand and accept. For me it kinda sounds funny and not humorous at all. First is the â€Å"Do not shower while the wake is going on†. I don’t know what happens if you take a shower during a funeral but if you are the owner of the house and you accommodate every visitor of the wake, just imagine how they will react if you smell and look bad. Same with the no sweeping and cleaning of the house, what would the deceased soul feel if his wake is untidy? It’s just simply a matter of hygiene. These are the least I can remember from the film that I’ve watched. Actually, we also have a lot of myths in our province. This has no relation with the funeral but it is related with the beliefs itself. Like if you are being followed by a dog and you’re afraid of it, just bite your tongue then drag it backwards and suddenly the dog will stop following you. Another one is that when the funeral is already finished, you shall not have leftover food in your house, like the ones being given to the visitors. Instead of keeping it, just give it to strangers or visitors themselves for the last day. They say that it will prevent deaths of other relatives for the same year. I find it some sort of weird and I have no choice but to follow it because I don’t want my mother or grandparents to get mad at me if I don’t believe them. I admit that I’m also afraid of what the outcomes would be so I just obey them rather than have regrets if it happens. All in all, I think that without these kinds of myths, we’ll not have our identity as Filipinos. It’s already part of our culture and way of living. Even though you find them silly at times, instead of being annoyed, just try to smile and follow the flow. It just shows how Filipinos are loyal and faithful to their beliefs. And I know that most of these myths are not for fun or anything, it’s how we express our much respect towards matters.

What is Cystic Fibrosis? :: essays research papers

Your child is under weight, has greasy, smelly diarrhea, a chronic cough and seems to always be getting pneumonia. He wheezes when he breathes and has impaired exercise ability. He seems to never being growing to the average size of his peers and his skin is very salty (5). The doctor’s first instinct should be to test your child for a disease called cystic fibrosis. Cystic fibrosis is a disease, which causes the mucus in your body to be thicker in some areas. The most affected areas are the lungs and digestive system. As a result, the person may get chest infections and have difficulty digesting food. When cystic fibrosis is a consideration for a person’s disease the physician will do what is called a sweat test. This is a simple and cheap way to determine if your child has the disease. Because people who have cystic fibrosis (CF) have saltier sweat than others, the sweat test detects the amount of salt in the sweat of the individual (4). This is the best way to diagn ose a person with the disease (5).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  CF is a genetic disease, meaning that a person does not â€Å"catch it†, it is inherited in the genes passed down to the person. Cystic fibrosis lasts with the patient for their whole life. This makes it a chronic disease, not communicable (9). All symptoms of CF are caused by a mutation to the single chromosome 7. This particular gene is responsible for the building of the protein called the cystic fibrosis trans membrane conductance regulator (CFTR). Normally, the gene regulates the passage of chloride ions in and out of the cell, but when mutated as in the case of CF patients the chloride ions cannot move throughout the cell membrane because the CFTR does not open. In about three- quarter of CF cases the CFTR is not just broken, but is completely missing from the cell. The missing CFTR has many effects on the human body. One is saltier sweat because as the sweat rises to the skin, cells reabsorb sodium and chloride molecules. The loss of the CFTR does no t allow the body to reabsorb the sodium ions making a CF patient’s sweat five times saltier than that of a normal person. This can lead to irregular heart rhythms. The loss of chloride ions affects the pancreas also. The loss of the CFTR ultimately makes it impossible for digestive enzymes to be sent to the intestines.

Bio 169

Urinary System: Anatomy Review 1. Name the organs in the urinary system:1. 2 kidneys2. 2 ureters3. bladder4. uethra2. The kidneys are retroperitoneal (behind the peritoneum), lying against the dorsal body wall in the upper abdomen. 3. The adrenal gland sits atop the kidneys. Blood vessels enter and leave the kidney at the renal cortex. 4. The functional units of the kidney are the nephrons. They are called renal pyramids if they are located mainly in the cortex. They are called renal pyramids if they are located in both the cortex and the medulla. 5. Blood enters the kidney through the hilus artery. The artery branches into smaller and smaller arteries and arterioles. Complete the sequence below: ______________ arteriole ______________ capillaries ______________ arteriole ______________ capillaries and vasa recta6. Complete the sequence below showing all parts of the nephron: Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule proximal convoluted tubule loop of henle (both descending and ascending limb) distal convoluted tubule collecting duct (both cortical and medullary sections)7. The renal corpuscle consists of two parts: glomerular capillaries and the Bownan’s capsule.A portion of the plasma is filtered into the capsular space due to the hydrostatic pressure of the blood.8. The filtration membrane consists of fenestrated capillary endothelium, porous basementmembrane, and the photocyte (which contain filtration slits). This filtration membrane permits (large or small) molecules to be filtered.9. Proximal tubule: The simple cuboid al cells of the proximal tubule are called brush border cells because they contain numerous microvilli. The microvilli increase the surface area for reabsorption. The proximal tubule cells are highly permeable to water and many solutes. The tight junctions permit the movement of water between the cells.10. Loop of Henle: The thin descending limb of the loop of Henle is highly permeable to water but not to solutes. The thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle is highly permeable to ___________________ but not to ___________________.11. The thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle runs back between the afferent and efferent arterioles as they enter and leave the glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule. The juxtaglomerular apparatus consists of the macular densa cells of the tubule and the granular (modified smooth muscle) cells of the afferent arteriole. Granulerutal cells serve as baroreceptors sensitive to blood pressure within the arteriole. Macular densa cells monitor and respond t o changes in the osmolarity (or electrolyte composition) of the filtrate in the tubule.12. After the juxtaglomerular apparatus, the tubule becomes the distal tubule, which merges with the cortical collecting duct. The cortical collecting duct contains two functional types of cells: Principal cells—hormones regulate their permeability to water and solutes. Intercalated cells—secrete hydrogen ions for acid-base regulation.13. The medullary collecting duct is composed of principal cells.Their permeability to urea and water is hormonally regulated. Urinary System: Glomerular Filtration1. What force drives filtration at the glomerulus? Blood pressure2. Glomerular filtration is a process of bulk flow driven by the hydrostatic pressure of the blood.3. Common components of the filtrate are divided into four categories on the CD program. These include: 1. water 2. ions 3. notrogenous waste 4. organic molecules4. Blood pressure in the glomerulus is about 60 mmHg.5. What two pres sures oppose filtration and what are their values?1. hydrostatic 15mmHg2. osmotic 28mm Hg6. What is the normal net filtration pressure? 7 mmHg7. With a glomerular filtration rate of 125 ml/min, how much plasma would be filtered per day? 180L In 24 hours? _____8. In an exercising individual the afferent arteriole will (dilate or constrict) to avoid excess fluid loss.9. Two mechanisms that provide autoregulatory control over renal processes include: 1. myogenic 2. tubuloglomer10. High osmolarity (or high Na+ and Cl–) in the ascending loop of Henle will cause afferent arterioles to (dilate or constrict) by releasing vasoconstrictor11. In periods of extreme stress, the sympathetic nervous system will override autoregulation.An increase in sympathetic flow to the kidney will result in what two important effects that will aid maintenance of blood pressure?1. vasocontriction2. Urinary System: Early Filtrate Processing1. What are the two reabsorption pathways through the tubular cell barrier?1. transcellular2. paracellular2. How can we cause water to diffuse from the lumen into the interstitial space? An increase in the osmolarity of the interstitium3. Transport of what ion could cause the diffusion in question 2?4. Summarize reabsorption in the proximal tubule. 85% of reabsorption of all useful substances occur here5. What percent of the filtrate is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule? 99%6. The simple squamous cells of the thin descending loop are permeable to __________________ but impermeable to ________________.7. The ascending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to Water but impermeable to solutes.8. What is the role of the loop of Henle? Facilitated diffusion9. What is the role of the vasa recta? Blood capillary which collects the filtered blood capillary which collects the filtered blood from afferent arterriole10. From the Quiz section, what does furosemide do? Increases your water output to decrease fluid retention through urinationUrinary System: La te Filtrate Processing1. Name the two types of cells in the cortical collecting ducts and describe their function.1. principal2. intercalated2.a. Aldosterone is stimulated by an increase or decrease in what ions?1. potassium2. Sodiumb. What does aldosterone increase in the basolateral membrane?3. What does antidiuretic hormone (ADH) increase in the luminal membrane? Vasopressin4. In dehydration and overhydration, what would be the levels of: a. ADH? v dehydration ___? ___ overhydration (? or ) b.Aldosterone? ___ v ___ dehydration __? ____ overhydration (? or )5. Describe what move(s) out of the tubule and what the osmolarity would be in the following nephron segments: a. Proximal tubule______ move(s) out______ mOsm b. Descending limb______ move(s)out______ mOsm c. Ascending limb______ move(s)out______ mOsm d. Late distal tubule______ move(s)out______ mOsm6. a. By the medullary collecting duct, only _____% of the filtrate remains. b. Under the following conditions, report the levels of ADH and subsequent urine osmolarity and flow rate7. a. Urine with a â€Å"high normal osmolarity† and containing RBCs and protein would indicate: _______________ b. Urine with a very high osmolartiy and glucose would indicate: _______________ c. Urine with a very low osmolarity and high volume would indicate: _______________8. An increase in plasma potassium levels would lead to what changes in the following? (? or ) a. _____aldosterone levels b. _____potassium excretion c. _____sodium excretion d. _____interstitial osmolarity e. _____urine volume

Unit 10 Study Guide

Lymphatic system study guide- complete after listening to lecture and reviewing the vocabulary. 1. This receives lymph from the rest of the body. The thoracic duct receives lymph from the rest of the body. 2. Small masses lf lymphatic tissue that rings the pharynx in the throat. Tonsils ring the pharynx in the throat. 3. This is literally a ‘eating cell’ such as macrophages and neutrophils. Phagocytic cells are ‘eating cells’. 4. What is a substance capable of exciting our immune system and provoking an immune response?An antigen provokes an immune response in the body, but they are excited by pathogens. 5. Later immune responses which are much faster, more prolonged, and more effective are called active immunity responses. 6. This contains dead or weakened viruses injected to initiate active immunity. A vaccine is an injection with dead or weakened viruses to bolster the body’s immunity to the foreign virus. 7. T cells that remain behind after an inf ection to provide immunological memory are called memory cells. . A bodywide, acute, allergic response that is fairly rare is called anaphylactic shock. 9. What is it called when the body produces antibodies and sensitized T cells that attack and damage its own tissues? An autoimmune disorder is when the body in essence attacks itself. 10. Tissue grafts taken from unrelated persons are called allografts. 11. Small proteins that diffuse to nearby cells and bind to their membrane receptors are called interferons. 2. Antibodies are also referred to as immunoglobulins or IGS and constitute the gamma globulin part of blood proteins and are formed in response to an antigen. 13. Excess tissue fluid that is picked up and returned to the blood stream by vessels is called lymph capillaries. 14. Complement refers to a group of 20 plasma proteins that circulate in the blood at an inactive site that becomes active when it becomes attached to a foreign cell.

buy custom Students Assessment Process essay

buy custom Students Assessment Process essay Student assessment is a fundamental link between effective learning and teaching. Student assessment is a measurement instrument of student outcomes. The assessment process can be more than an evaluation that leads to a grade in a course or on an assignment. It should however be noted that student evaluation is the end result of successful learning and teaching assessment. Two educational entities web sites that describe their student assessment process The two websites visited include; The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and Instructional Assessment Resources (IAR). The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is the biggest national representative and continuing assessment of what Americas students know and perform in various subject areas. NAEP conducts assessment periodically in Mathematics, Reading, Science, Writing, Arts, Civics, Economics, Geography and U.S History (NAEP, 2011). NAEP assessments are carried out uniformly using the same sets of test booklets across the country. NAEP assessment results are used to serve a common metric for all states and selected urban districts (NAEP, 2011). NAEP assesses students based on the subject on the matter achievement, instructional experiences. The assessment results of NAEP are dependent on representative samples of students at grades 4, 8 and 12 for the main assessments (Beatty, 1994). NAEP also uses samples of students at ages 9, 13, or 17 years for the long-term trend assessments. The ages and grades are considered because they represent important stages in students academic achievement (NAEP, 2011). NAEP conducts both national and state assessments. The national assessments cover a broad range of subjects such as Reading, Mathematics, Science, Writing, Arts, Civics, Economics, Geography, and U.S History. NAEP (2011) indicated that these assessments follow the frameworks developed by the National Assessment Governing Board. For national assessments, students in public and private schools are assessed but at state level, NAEP conducts assessment in public schools only. According to Instructional Assessment Resources (IAR) students assessment involves data collection from accepted analysis methods in order to monitor, draw conclusions, make recommendations and improve student learning (IAR, 2011). The Instructional Assessment Resources (IAR) follows three main steps which include planning, gathering data and reporting results. IAR first considers the subject area, difficulty, constraints, expected student results and other features of the course or activity which sets the frame of reference for all subsequent planning decisions in a student assessment (IAR, 2011). It is important to determine whether the process will use the assessment to informally monitor student work, provide feedback, document progress and to formally evaluate student knowledge. IAR (2011) publication mentioned that it is important to decide how often the assessment process will be conducted. An assessment plan is significant because it details how to implement the assessment. The plan includes the course learning objectives, assessment points, the assessment methods and the performance criteria for each method (IAR, 2011). During the IAR student assessment process, data gathering focuses on the best way to implement the various assessment methods (IAR, 2011). The process should put emphasis on the processes and methods to assess student learning, performance criteria for all approaches used and ethical or grading concerns (IAR, 2011). Using the IAR student assessment process, at the start and end of the semester, students complete assessments that are used to determine their strengths and opportunities for improvement in areas of strategic learning. IAR publication notifies that the results of this assessment do not affect their final grade in the course (IAR, 2011). NAEP student assessment process intends students answer questions based on a variety of age appropriate reading materials such as stories, poems reports and advertisements. According to NAEP (2008) publication Trends in Academic Progress the assessment process is designed to measure students ability to locate specific information in the text provided, make inferences based on information in two or more parts of the text and identify the main idea in the text. The publication continues to say that students reading skills were assessed using multiple-choice questions and some constructed response questions (NAEP, 2008, p. 8). The NAEP (2008) publication also stated that the skills and abilities shown by students performing at different points on the reading scale help to provide additional context for understanding changes in students performance over time (p. 12). Using the NAEP student assessment processes, the results obtained are in terms of average scale scores, percentiles and five performance levels. The assesment results are described by race, gender and type of school (Beatty, 1994). Identify the goals and assumptions inherent in these processes and assessment instruments. Goals The goal of student assessment is to show reliable evidence that learning relative to course goals has occurred (Siebert McIntosh, 2001). The assessment is congruent with this role because they put more emphasis on the measurement of learning outcomes over more course completion. Apart from measuring the outcomes, assessment can be used to inform instruction. Siebert McIntosh (2001) says that through studying the students in the class and collecting data that inform about the progress hence establish the effectiveness of the teaching practice. Siebert McIntosh (2001) also noted that a well designed assessment can be used as a learning tool by students hence assessments provide students with feedback on the efficacy of their study habits and therefore allow students to assess their own learning (p. 57). Another goal of assessment is that they help students to provide information only on what students know and do not know based on that assessment, taken on that day (Psencik, 2009). Students assessment measures their perceptions of their teachers practices in the same domains and allows comparisons of the discrepancies between each student and their teachers perceptions of classroom practices in each domain of classroom practice McCombs Miller (2008). In addition, Psencik (2009) says that through student assessment, teams involved establishment a commitment to mapping as one of several tools they will develop together for their learning as well as their students learning. Assessment results are used to determine the retention or promotion of students, rating of schools based on single test data, or differentiated pay for staff whose students score high. Student assessment can be part of every instructional opportunity and experience. Avery (2003) mentioned that the data gathered during the assessment process serves to improve the instruction and ensure student learning (p. 20). They are used to measure student learning outcomes, and the process is iterative, cyclical and leads to action. In addition, Avery (2003) also says that an effective assessment plan will produce data to show that students are learning and we are accountable and to depict the integral value of librarians to the educational process. Assumptions While carrying out the student assessment process, the assumptions cannot be overlooked. Psencik (2009) noted that the first assumption is that professional learning communities who are most successful engage in rigorous learning through designing aligned, reliable and valid assessment instruments. Psencik thus says that there should be continuous learning of new ways of and for assessing student learning and work to develop powerful instruments (2009). The second assumption is that the more teachers are involved in the process with the students, the deeper the teachers and students understand the students progress and the goals students need to set for themselves (Psencik, 2009). The third assumption is that as teaching teams design and use common assessments of and for learning, they will develop deeper understanding of the concepts and standards for their courses of study. Psencik (2009) also says that it is assumed that during the assessment process, the teams will begin to visualize what students are actually doing when they are proficient, and explore new and different instructional strategies(p. 65). Analyze the instrument's quality and appropriateness. The design and implementation of an effective assessment tool in a school, school district, or state presents many challenges hence there is a need for a careful assessment of the instruments quality and appropriateness. Doran (2002) says that an appropriate instrument must use format that enable students to demonstrate what they know and what they can do (p. 15). An appropriate instrument and tasks must collect relevant data and information that are consistent, informative, reliable and valid to all students (Doran, 2002). In this context, it can be noted that both IAR and NAEP instruments are appropriate because they are flexible, adaptable enough to accommodate a variety of learning styles and language proficiencies, enabling students to demonstrate their knowledge and skills in multiple ways. The assessments must be consistent with the decision they are designed to inform. Siebert McIntosh (2001) noted that achievement and opportunity to learn science must be assessed. Also the technical quality of the data collected is well matched to the decision and actions taken on the basis of their interpretation. In addition the inferences made from assessments about student achievement and opportunity to learn must be sound (Siebert McIntosh, 2001). Another important feature of assessment is that it is an ongoing process aimed at understanding and improving student learning. Siebert McIntossh (2001) indicated that student assessment involves making our expectations explicit and public, setting the necessary criteria and high standards for learning quality (p. 58). The assessment process is governed by systematically gathering, analyzing, and interpreting evidence to establish how well performance matched the expectations and standards. Assessment helps key stakeholder to focus on their collective attention, examine their assumptions and create a shared academic culture dedicated to assuring and improving the quality of education (Siebert McIntosh, 2001). In her studies, Avery (2003) noted that classroom-level assessment can take relatively simple forms. This assessment process is legitimate and highly informative and implementation and data analysis are easily managed. The classroom assessment techniques (CATs) give continuous feedback and therefore it enables us to be confident students are learning. Avery (2003) further says that CATs also can be used to obtain formative or summative student learning information. Through student assessment process we are able to determine if students have obtained critical thinking skills, the behaviors and the abilities to synthesize crucial concepts and ideas. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) student assessment process enables institutions to capture the bigger picture of student information literacy skills. Avery (2003) noted that information literacy assessment within a classroom setting includes strategies that focus on course syllabus, products for the course and the process by which students create those products (p. 10). The methodologies used in this assessment process include evaluation of bibliographies, reviews of assignments and underscore the research process and the use of portfolios or journals. In order to make these assessment processes to be effective the goals and objectives of the instruction must be explicit and fully understood by the students as well as the teacher (Avery, 2003). While carrying out the assessment in Instructional Assessment Resources (IAR), the assessment tools are matched with both the definition or theory being used and the goals of the assessment (Starko, 2009). The first assumption while carrying out this assessment is that no one assessment has sufficient reliability and validity to be the sole determination of student educational opportunities. This implies that it is important to have different sources of information. Starko (2009) indicated that other sources of student information required in the assessment process include standardized tests, performance assessments, and behavioral observation (p. 307). In Instructional Assessment Resources (IAR) it is recommended that the multiple sources of student information are examined rather than creating an artificial, summed creativity score. In addition, Horvat, Block Kelly (2007) says that most assessment tools are selected based on very practical consideration such as how easy they are or how much time they require to administer. The appropriateness of assessment tools is based on the complexity and subjective nature of many of the behaviors being assessed or if there is ambiguity as to whether a student is consistently demonstrating improvement. Beatty (1994) on the other hand identified that the appropriateness of an assessment tool is dependent on the range of constructed response exercises to stimulate thinking and a wide array of stimuli. IAR assessment exercises were innovative in other respects. Beatty (1994) says that one limitation of this type of assessment is that it frequently presents pieces of information or problems to be solved in isolation. IAR encourages students to consider several different aspects of the subject and have greater opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding. NAEP assessment tool also encourages students to consider several different aspects of the subject and have greater opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding. Beatty (1994) NAEP strategy uses two longer sets of exercises known as theme blocks. This assessment tool gives the students the opportunity to showcase their ability to work with a variety of primary and secondary sources to use several different sources at once and to synthesize a body of information. Beatty (1994) says that NAEP also uses multiple choice questions and the assessment includes both short and extended constructed response questions. The advantage of this instrument is that each constructed response question is scored according to a scoring guide or rubric that gives credit for partially correct answers. In conclusion, students assessment process plays an important role in measuring the effectiveness of student learning and teaching process. Both Instructional Assessment Resources (IAR) and National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) student assessment processes require a clear definition of goals and objectives of carrying the procedures. The process employed should be flexible, adjustable enough to take care of a variety of learning styles and language proficiencies. This enables students to reveal their knowledge and talents in numerous ways. Buy custom Students Assessment Process essay

Descriptive and Informative Abstracts

Descriptive and Informative Abstracts Free Online Research Papers This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down to isolate their component parts. What is an abstract? An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline; an abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage. top Why write an abstract? You may write an abstract various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in the longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching. Selection Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazils ultra-liberal president Luiz Igncio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. Newspapers and politics returned 569 hits. A more selective search of newspapers and Brazil returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro. It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the disse rtation: This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro Is gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Braz il. From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read. Indexing Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search by abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a full-text search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International, using the keywords France revolution and politics, the search engine searched through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to only search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. I would bet that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes t he central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work. When do people write abstracts? * when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals * when applying for research grants * when writing a book proposal * when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or MA thesis * when writing a proposal for a conference paper * when writing a proposal for a book chapter Most of the time the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other peoples work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates, most often in seminar-style classes, are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work. Types of abstracts There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a review. If you are unsure of which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor if it is for a class, or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article. Descriptive abstracts A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short- 100 words or less. Informative abstracts The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less. Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout: Abstracts, UNC-CH Writing Center, Descriptive abstract: The two most common abstract types- descriptive and informative- are described and examples of each are provided. Informative abstract: Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their project. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, online journal articles, and internal office communication. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one. Which type should I use? Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative. top How do I write an abstract? The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind: Key process elements: 1. Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work? 2. Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim? 3. Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research. 4. Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way. 5. Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic? (This list of element is adapted with permission from Phil Koopman, How to Write an Abstract, ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html.) All abstracts include: 1. The full citation of the source preceding the abstract. 2. The most important information first. 3. The same level of language found in the original, including technical language. 4. Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work. 5. Clear, concise, and powerful language. Abstracts may include: 1. The thesis of the work in the first sentence. 2. The background that places the work in the larger body of literature. 3. The same chronological structure of the original work. How not to write a abstract: 1. Do not refer extensively to other works. 2. Do not add information not contained in the original work. 3. Do not define terms. If you are abstracting your own writing When abstracting your own work it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however. Reverse outlining: This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the one main idea that is in each paragraph on a separate piece of paper. For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but they are grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the several ideas in each section and then distill them into one statement. Cut and paste: To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that particularly capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising these disparate sentences into a unified paragraph. If you are abstracting someone elses writing When abstracting something you have not written you do not have the luxury of cutting and pasting. Instead, it is up to you to divine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process: Identify key terms: Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract be sure to incorporate the key terms. Highlight key phrases and sentences: Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, re-write the sentences and phrases in your own words. Dont look back: After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted. Revise, revise, revise No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone elses, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest amount of space. The Word Count feature of MS Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length. top Example 1: Humanities abstract Kenneth Tait Andrews, Freedom is a constant struggle: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984 Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998 This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Indeed, some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents dri ving institutional change. Typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi. Now lets break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract. What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Indeed, some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change. Typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi. Keywords Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation top Example 2: Science abstract Luis Lehner, Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998 The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one s econd. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability. This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions. Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals. What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability. Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes Research Papers on Descriptive and Informative AbstractsAmerican Central Banking and OilMy Writing ExperienceDistance Learning Survival GuideIs the Use of Psychotropic Drugs in the Treatment ofContrasting Berthe Morisot and Jan van EyckHenderson the Rain KingQuebec and CanadaMr. Obama and IranExempt vs Non-Exempt EmployeesGlobal Distributive Justice is Utopian

Free Short Stories from Project Gutenberg

Free Short Stories from Project Gutenberg Founded by Michael Hart in 1971, Project Gutenberg is a free digital library containing more than 43,000 e-books. Most of the works are in the public domain, though in some cases copyright holders have given Project Gutenberg permission to use their work. Most of the works are in English, but the library also includes texts in French, German, Portuguese, and other languages. The effort is run by volunteers who are constantly working to expand the librarys offerings. Project Gutenberg was named after Johannes Gutenberg, the German inventor who developed movable type in 1440. Movable type, along with other advances in printing, helped facilitate mass production of texts, which fostered the rapid spread of knowledge and ideas in art, science, and philosophy. Goodbye, Middle Ages. Hello, Renaissance. Note: Because copyright laws vary from country to country, users outside of the United States are advised to check the copyright laws in their respective countries before downloading or distributing any texts from Project Gutenberg. Finding Short Stories on the Site Project Gutenberg offers a wide range of texts, from the United States Constitution to old issues of Popular Mechanics to charming medical texts like 1912s Cluthes Advice to the Ruptured. If youre specifically hunting for short stories, you can start with the directory of short stories arranged by geography and other topics. (Note: If you have trouble accessing the Project Gutenberg pages, look for an option that says, Turn off this top frame and the page should work.) At first, this arrangement seems straightforward, but on closer examination, youll realize that all of the stories categorized under Asia and Africa, for example, are written by English-speaking authors like Rudyard Kipling and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who wrote stories about those continents. In contrast, some of the stories categorized under France are by French writers; others are by English writers writing about France. The remaining categories seem somewhat arbitrary (Ghost Stories, Victorian Stories of Successful Marriages, Victorian Stories of Troubled Marriages), but there is no question that they are fun to browse through. In addition to the short stories category, Project Gutenberg offers an extensive selection of folklore. In the childrens section, you can find myths and fairytales, as well as picture books. Accessing the Files When you click on an interesting title on Project Gutenberg, youll be confronted with a somewhat daunting (depending on your comfort level with technology) array of files to choose from. If you click Read this e-book online, youll get completely plain text. This is an important part of what Project Gutenberg is trying to accomplish; these texts will be preserved electronically without complications from fancy formatting that might not be compatible with future technologies. Nevertheless, knowing that the future of civilization is secure wont improve your reading experience today one iota. The plain-text online versions are uninviting, awkward to page through, and dont include any images. A book called More Russian Picture Tales, for example, simply includes [illustration] to tell you where you might see a lovely image if only you could get your hands on the book. Downloading a plain text file rather than reading it online is slightly better because you can scroll all the way down the text instead of hitting next page over and over. But it is still pretty stark. The good news is that Project Gutenberg really, really wants you to be able to read and enjoy these texts, so they offer many other options: HTML. In general, the HTML file will provide a better reading experience online. Take a look at the HTML file for More Russian Picture Tales, and-voil!- the illustrations appear.EPUB files, with or without images. These files work on most e-readers, but not on Kindle.Kindle files, with or without images. Be aware, though, that Project Gutenberg is up in arms because of the Kindle Fire, unlike previous Kindles, is not particularly compatible with free e-books. For suggestions, you can read their webmasters Review of the Kindle Fire.Plucker files. For PalmOS devices and a few other handheld devices.QiOO mobile e-book files. These files are intended to be readable on all mobile phones, but Javascript is required. The Reading Experience Reading archival material, electronically or otherwise, is very different from reading other books. The lack of context can be disorienting. You can often find a copyright date, but otherwise, theres very little information about the author, the pieces publication history, the culture at the time it was published, or its critical reception. In some cases, it may be impossible to even figure out who had translated works into English. To enjoy Project Gutenberg, you need to be willing to read alone. Going through these archives is not like reading a bestseller that everyone else is reading, too. When someone at a cocktail party asks you what youve been reading, and you answer, I just finished an 1884 short story by F. Anstey called The Black Poodle, you will likely be met with blank stares. But did you read it? Of course you did, because it begins with this line: I have set myself the task of relating in the course of this story, without suppressing or altering a single detail, the most painful and humiliating episode of my life. Unlike most works you read in anthologies, many of the works in the Project Gutenberg library have not withstood the proverbial test of time. We know that someone in history thought the story was worth publishing. And we know that at least one human being- a volunteer from Project Gutenberg- thought a given story was worth putting online forever. The rest is up to you. Browsing through the archive may raise some questions for you about what on earth that test of time really means, anyway. And if you feel youd like some company in your reading, you can always suggest a Gutenberg piece to your book club. The Rewards Though its wonderful to see a familiar name like Mark Twain in the archives, the truth is that The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County has already been widely anthologized. You probably have a copy on your shelf right now. So the Gutenberg price tag, though fabulous, isnt really the best thing about the site. Project Gutenberg brings out the literary treasure-hunter in all of us. There are gems at every turn, like this wonderful voice from Bill Arp (pen name of Charles Henry Smith, 1826-1903, an American writer from Georgia), featured in The Wit and Humor of America, volume IX: I almost wish every man was a reformed drunkard. No man who hasnt drank liker knows what a luxury cold water is. Cold water may, indeed, be a luxury to the drunkard, but for someone who loves short stories, the real luxury is the chance to explore thousands of rich-but-almost-forgotten texts, to read with fresh eyes, to get a glimpse of literary history, and to form unencumbered opinions about what you read.

Constitution High School Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Constitution High School - Essay Example a) The overall structure of the executive body is that of a lobbying group, that also acts as an associational interest group. There must be a broad representation of all student clubs, and so each of the members will run according to their party group. This will require each candidate to submit his or her name and their class. b) All members will be voted in with a plurality vote, wherein each candidate must submit his party name and not first name to avoid any discrimination. A photograph of each student will also be included in the ballot. c) Each member of the Legislative branch must adhere to his or her duties, which include: - Putting forth issues of the community and translating them to the executive branch; - Proposing prospective groups for funding from student government, or the university; and - Oversee the finances of the student groups d) all members of the legislative branch will be voted in the second semester of the year to ensure comprehensive understanding of student life and government structure. ARTICLE IV - OFFICE REMOVAL AND REPLACEMENTS a) Any member of office may be brought up on Impeachment charges. If charges are made by another member, a separate judicial court session will be held a week from the date of accusation. b) The judicial court will consist of a prosecutor, defendant, and a judge. Advisors are advised to sit second chair to the prosecutor and defense attorney, who may also be an advisor. c) The judge for the organization will be selected prior to the allegation by a majority vote of the members. d) If the member is deemed guilty, they will then be removed and replaced by the second runner up during elections. ARTICLE V - CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS a) Constitutional Amendments may be added to the Constitution on need basis by the president or vice-president in the president's

Economics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Economics - Research Paper Example The acquisition of this form of knowledge depends on the owners of business processes, as they are the only entities with the ability to evaluate and quantify the financial, operational and regulatory consequences of disruptions. The effects in reputation have remained difficult to calculate precisely and accurately. An elaborate analysis of information security risks should reflect the manner in which operations are affected and the manner in which time affects this impact since this is hardly ever a linear function (Kairab, 2005). For instance, a service interruption that last for ten minutes may have negligible ramifications while a similar service interruption or breach that last for a longer time may have catastrophic effects on a business or a company. Information risk definition and quantification is founded on accessible and dependable data that is evaluated by people who are conversant with particular information security processes, they enable the assessment of the effects in a reasonable

Project Proposal Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Project Proposal - Research Paper Example In the view that campaigning increases the chances of success, it follows that the larger the campaign budget, the more chances of winning. For example, president Obama used more than twice the amount used in the McCain campaign (Gardiner, 2010). There are other examples that demonstrate the relationship between campaign budgets and chances of success. Ideally, campaigning follows the same principles as advertisement. The more popular brands enjoy more exposure. In the private sector, advertisements have such a significant influence on consumers that it sometimes results in monopolies (Gardiner, 2010). People choose the popular brand, despite the availability of better brands, in terms of performance, at a cheaper price. In the same way, a case can be made for extensive campaigns influencing the decision of American citizens. Therefore, it follows that the more access to cash, coming from corporate, the better and the chances of winning. To reduce the impact of funding on candidates, the Supreme Court directed that all donations by corporate be made to political parties. The principle behind this provision was that the limited power of the donations on the presidential candidates would limit the power of the donators on him or her(Torole, 2010). However, Tarole proposes that this not be possible. A candidate is bound to know the supporters of their campaign and thus feel an element of debt towards them (Bebchuk & Jackson, 2010). c. Corporate are the biggest financial entities and they have access to virtually unlimited funds. This implies that if the relationship between campaign and success is linear, then corporate have the ability to instill presidents in

Differences in Mergers Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Differences in Mergers - Research Paper Example The merger between a manufacturing company and one of its distribution channel partners is an example of a possible vertical merger. When IBM acquired Intelliden in 2010 it is an example of another form of vertical merger. The smaller Intelliden in the business activity of automation software technology was vertically merged with the larger IBM, enabling IBM to make use of its automated software competencies, so that it did not have to create these competencies and develop the software available with Intelliden. A conglomerate merger is totally different from a horizontal and vertical merger, as it involves the merger between two companies that operate in different sectors of industrial activity. A clear example of such a merger can be seen from the merger of the financial company Berkshire Hathaway with the railroad and transportation company Burlington Northern Santa Fe (Pride, Hughes & Kapoor, 2010,

Preators in Roman Law vs Equity in English law Essay

Preators in Roman Law vs Equity in English law - Essay Example This essay stresses that English law remains uncodified just like Roman law, but there exists a vast legal framework comprised of records of cases and the legal principles on which decisions have been made. Therefore one of the most important contributions made by both Roman and English law have been in the maintenance of accurate, meticulous and detailed records f the cases in question. This helps to not only elaborate and consolidate established legal principles for the benefit of future legal personnel, but it also serves as a record for historical purposes. The maintenance of such written records have also been the cause for the initiation of reforms as necessary, when the precedents are found to be inapplicable and are overturned by fresh precedents, which was also done in the same manner in Roman law. This paper makes a conclusion that the Preators made a substantial contribution to the development of equitable, time tested principles that would be able to withstand the test of time. In a similar manner, English law has also made a substantial contribution to furthering the cause of law by introducing measures of equity when the medieval judges began to rely too much on precedent. Thereby by a judicious mix of the old and the new, the current legal system is continuing to evolve, retaining those principles that are worthwhile and rejecting those that are outdated by replacing them with new precedents, to further the cause of justice.

Assessment in Counseling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Assessment in Counseling - Essay Example Assessment being an integrated assortment of data gathered from both informal and formal interactions with the client by the counselor provides a more holistic insight into the problems of the client (Juhnke, 1995, p. 2). The assessing process is found to begin when the counselor starts to see â€Å"a clear picture of the outcomes a client expects from counselling† (Hiebert, 1996). The assessing process should focus on client learning outcomes as well as client impact outcomes (Hiebert, 1996). It can be seen that client learning outcomes are easy to realize while impact outcomes may remain difficult to attain yet (Hiebert, 1996). This is shown in the below given example: School counsellors can feel confident about teaching children conflict resolution procedures or anger management skills (which are learning outcomes), but they may be less successful in making a child less aggressive (which is an impact outcome), because they cannot have sufficient impact to counteract the eff ects of contextual factors such as family violence and many years of practice using aggression to resolve conflict (Hiebert, 1996). When a counselor tries to bring about both these outcomes through assessment, the assessment techniques are used in harmony with each other so that it becomes â€Å"a continuous process, throughout treatment† (Juhnke, 1995, p.2). ... circumstances and the range of client learning outcomes make it unlikely that appropriate standardized assessments could be developed (Hiebert, 1996). Informal assessment techniques comprise of â€Å"informal, yet systematic, procedures for documenting the evidence that client progress has been made† (Hiebert, 1996). Some informal assessment techniques are, goal attainment scaling, checklists, self-monitoring, thought listing, mind mapping, life line, role play, and photograph safari (Hiebert, 1996; Juhnke, 1995). Here, the process of assessment itself is viewed as part of the change process that happens in the client ((Juhnke, 1995, p.2). The five major uses of assessment according to Wall (n.d) have been â€Å"selection and placement, diagnosis, accountability and evaluation, identifying trends or progress (and) self discovery† (p.69). Wall (n.d) has also listed the advantages of using assessment, namely, objectivity, cost effectiveness and fairness (p.71-72). Two sit uations in which I would use formal assessment While dealing with children with language disabilities, I may use developmental screening method (Gullo, 2005, p.45). Gullo (2005) has described developmental screening tests as â€Å"norm-referenced assessment instruments that allow one to compare an individual child’s score with those of other children of similar chronological age† (p.45). These tests will also enable me to gauge the â€Å"visual-motor and adaptive skills† of these children and design special learning packages for them. I can use another formal assessment method, diagnostic tests, while handling children with dyslexia. The purpose of such a test is that we identify and measure â€Å"the existence of a disability or specific area of academic weakness in a child† (Gullo, 2005, p.46). I will

Preators in Roman Law vs Equity in English law Essay

Preators in Roman Law vs Equity in English law - Essay Example This essay stresses that English law remains uncodified just like Roman law, but there exists a vast legal framework comprised of records of cases and the legal principles on which decisions have been made. Therefore one of the most important contributions made by both Roman and English law have been in the maintenance of accurate, meticulous and detailed records f the cases in question. This helps to not only elaborate and consolidate established legal principles for the benefit of future legal personnel, but it also serves as a record for historical purposes. The maintenance of such written records have also been the cause for the initiation of reforms as necessary, when the precedents are found to be inapplicable and are overturned by fresh precedents, which was also done in the same manner in Roman law. This paper makes a conclusion that the Preators made a substantial contribution to the development of equitable, time tested principles that would be able to withstand the test of time. In a similar manner, English law has also made a substantial contribution to furthering the cause of law by introducing measures of equity when the medieval judges began to rely too much on precedent. Thereby by a judicious mix of the old and the new, the current legal system is continuing to evolve, retaining those principles that are worthwhile and rejecting those that are outdated by replacing them with new precedents, to further the cause of justice.

Water gate scandal and Frost Nixon Research Paper

Water gate scandal and Frost Nixon - Research Paper Example The Newspapers response: The notable newspapers took this story by its horns and both the editorials, cartoonists, columnists and every person who could contribute contributed in their own way to discuss this topic in every way possible. Some of them went quite far in extent to criticizing the overall debacle and directly termed the parties involved as guilty. This incident was noticed in case of publication by Donnesbury comic strip which directly pointed finger at the then Attorney General John N. Mitchell. To some newspapers this was quite harsh and blunt and decided not to display this directly nor point finger directly by terming them guilty in open words. Washington post was one of the newspapers that decided to practice discretion and not to go all fronts war and open against the people involved in the murky episode that had frosted the political setup of the country. To some critiques, severe rules and norms of ethical codes and conduct would be violated and in fact were viol ated by displaying cartoons that directly pointed at individuals. Washington post was one of the newspapers that took this matter into account and decided not to publish content indiscriminately. Los Angeles times and Newsday were two other newspapers that took into account the matter of ethical codes and conduct consideration and decided not to publish everything that may come to hand. The one post that caused stir all over was the one in which attorney general was termed guilty, however since he was not proven as one as the entire case was on trial therefore most of the newspapers took back the cartoon section and decided not to publish it(Lemann, nicholas).While the cartoon did gain a lot of interest and attention,... The research paper makes sure we know that the depoch in the history of American politics is termed as one of the most disturbing, unwarranted and un afforded one which cost all the members involved in it heavily. The impact of the overall episode was so intense that it led to the resignation of an elected President and which had never happened in history before as in case of a similar political scandal. Then the paper introduces us to the term such as Frost Nixon interview. Frost Nixon interviews were part of the entire script and they were conducted by British members, after the incumbent president had taken refuge in his private life, he devoted considerable amount of time to this series and hence this series is named as frost Nixon interviews series. The paper also shares information, where the notable newspapers took this story by its horns and both the editorials, cartoonists, columnists and every person who could contribute contributed in their own way to discuss this topic in every way possible. The paper also shows us the consequences of the situation. The things did not end here, many dozen members of the governmental office were deprived of their ranks, various others imprisoned, thorough investigation stemmed in and at the end of it a lot was disclosed which none of the involved parties would have ever desired coming out to front. In conclusion, we see that what started off as a mere speculation by the security guard was something that would become a Hydra in longer run and would not extinguish until it took along with it the high ups of the day.

The Crucible have lasting appeal Essay Example for Free

The Crucible have lasting appeal Essay The play The Crucible was written in 1953 by Arthur Miller. It was set in a 1692 in a small Quaker town called Salem, Massachusetts, North America. Arthur Millar based the play on the Salem witch trials, so elements of this piece of literature are based on historical fact. The play acts as an analogy for the communism which took place post World War II in the American Government System. Miller himself said of the setting The place devotes a lethal brew of illicit sexuality, fear of the supernatural and political manipulation. The Play explores human relationships in a deeply religious, insular society. It explores many common themes that we can identify with the 21st century, the predominant themes are the strict Quaker religious regime, jealousy, revenge, adultery, compulsive obsessive behaviour, the art of manipulation, power obsessed, love and hate, violence, racism and finally prejudice. These themes are timeless as we still have them in todays society. They are skilfully presented in the play in the use of stage craft techniques, where Miller creates tension and suspense throughout the thorax. In his analogy Miller compares communism in the American Senate to the witchcraft that took place. This play highlights the hypocrisy of the American government and it is a satire on the American legal system. The title of this play, The Crucible has a specific meaning because a crucible is used as a melting pot for metal alloys and in Millers play he draws parallels between the different social and cultural fusion in a 17th century community and the mixing of different metals to strengthen a structure. As the principle characters in the play enter into conflicts, struggle to understand one another and beguile with their lies and lack of fidelity, we could see the similarity between a red hot crucible as all tensions come to the surface. There is a link between the crucible and the witches cauldron and witchcraft is a significant theme in the play. The title also relates to the death of John Proctor at the end of the play and his betrayal of conscious, suggesting to us that he too needed purifying like the metals heated in the crucible to purify it. This immediately appeals to our inquisitive nature and we are naturally intrigued by superstitious acts. Miller communicates to us through the play how a group of girls manipulate a theocratic society into believing that friends, family or neighbours were practising the art of witchcraft. A character called Abigail and some friends were discovered dancing in the forest. In order to divert attention form themselves the girls seized the opportunity to make their own accusations of witchcraft leading to the death of several characters. Millers inspiration came from his personal experience in the McCarthy Era in which he was accused of being a communist. Miller uses the theme of jealousy and presents it through Abigail Williams as she is clearly very jealous of Elizabeth Proctor. She wants to get rid of her so that she can have John Proctor to herself. Abigail is obsessed with him and will do anything in her power to get him, even if it means that Goody Proctor is killed. When the girls were dancing in the forest, Abigail drank a charm to kill Goody Proctor, this shows how much she will try in order to kill her. The main theme of this play is witchcraft, this engages the audience and adds curiousity. Mr Putnam is curious why seven of his children dies at birth and if it may be linked to witchcraft. Abigail uses the art of manipulation to force the other girls into following her. She blackmails them into doing as she say by saying: Let either of you breathe a word, or the edge of a word, about the other things, and I will come to you in the black of some terrible night and I will bring a pointy reckoning that will shudder you. She wants to be the leader and relishes the power that comes with it. She and the other girls create lies so that people in the town are accused of witchcraft so they will be arrested and hanged. It is as if the girls are deciding who will live and who will die. The people being accused of being witches are getting arrested for it; this is making the people lie in order to avoid death. If people confessed to witchcraft, even if they didnt practice it, their life would be spared. Corruption and discrimination is shown in the play and also the misuse of power and influence. Parris uses his power as the Reverend if Salem to his advantage. He is a widower with no interest in children, this means he doesnt really know or care about children and is a firm believer that children should be seen but not heard. The true nature of Parris is that he is more worried about himself not his daughter and this is shown when he says: Now look you, child, your punishment will come in its time. But if you trafficked with spirits in the forest I must know it now, for surely my enemies will, and they will ruin me with it He was paranoid and controlling, this was shown by the fact he felt insulted if someone rose to shut the door with out first asking for his permission. Also he thought that he was being persecuted wherever he went. As Reverend he was suppose to teach the word of God and make sure the rules of a Quaker town were kept, however, he spent the church money on gold statues and candlesticks instead of spending it on things that would be worthwhile. This makes him a hypocrite as he is telling the villagers to do one thing while he is doing the other. We also see racial discrimination against Tituba, I know not she spoke Barbados This is a theme that can still be seen in the world today and because she has a different appearance and she speaks differently then she is made a target for Abigails accusations. Abigail shows that she is racist throughout the play. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Arthur Miller section.

Protection of the generator analysis

Protection of the generator analysis In the generator mainly faults are the earth faults and the inter turn faults they are caused by the thermal and mechanical stresses.The field system is usually ungrounded so when fault between field winding and rotor body exist does not give rise fault current. But when the second earth fault exist it short circuit the rotor winding and then produce the unsymmetrical field system and unbalance the force on rotor.This causes vibration of the rotor and damage the bearings.So rotor earth fault protection is to provided to restrict the fault spreading on ward. Because of that fault, unbalanceing in three phase stator currents exists.As the unbalance three phase currents have the negative sequence component, it rotates in a opposite direction at the synchronous speed giving rise to double frequency currents.This results in to the overheating of the rotor and also damage to the rotor.temperature indicators are used for detecting the rotor overheating. Rotor open circuit faults are less to exist causes arcing problems and reduced excitation. Loss of the field failure occurs due to the short circuit or open circuit in field winding. In the case of the generator start running as induction generator, supplying power as the leading power factor.Due to the loss of excitationand loss of synchronism and system stability occur.rotor protection can also be done by using the tripping scheme which opens the field circuit breaker which will trip the generator unit breaker. Rotor Protection: Different schemes are used for protection of faults occurring in rotor. These schemes are of the following: Rotor earth fault protection: As the field circuit are operating unearthed a single earth fault does not affect the operation of the generator.But this fault increases the stress to the ground because stator transients induce an extra voltage in the field winding.If there is only the single earth fault but the relay should be provided to give the knowledge that fault has to occurred so that the generator may take out of the service until the second fault occurs and become the cause of serious damage for the rotor. There are two basic methods used for the rotor earth fault protection of the generator. Method I: In this method a high resistance is connected across the rotor circuit and its mid point is grounded through a sensitive relay. This relay detects the earth fault for whole circuit except the rotor center point Method II: In this method dc injection or ac injection method is used. .In it either dc or ac voltage is connected between the field circuit and ground through a sensitive over voltage relay and current limiting resistor or capacitor. A single earth fault in the rotor circuit will complete the circuit including voltage source, sensitive over voltage relay and earth fault. DC injection method is simple and has no problems of leakage currents. If we use dc the over voltage relay will be more sensitive than if we use ac because in case when we use ac the relay not picking up the current that flows normally through capacitance to ground and also care should be taken to avoid resonance between capacitance and inductance. Rotor overheating Protection: Negative sequence component of the unbalanced currents of the stator winding causes double frequency current to be induced in the rotor winding due to this component overheating of the rotor take place. In case of over current due to over excitation in the rotor circuit, a dc relay is used. This relay senses and initiates alarm. Application of such relay is limited because relaying of dc quantities is relatively uncommon Rotor Temperature Alarm: This kind of protection is only provided in case of large generators. It gives the level of temperature. In it resistance is measured by comparing voltage and current by a double actuating quantity moving coil relay. The operating coil being used as voltage coil and restraining coil used as current coil. The relay measures the ratio of voltage and current because resistance gives the measure of rotor temperature. Automatic Field Suppression and Use of Neutral circuit Breaker: When a fault on the generator winding exist even through the generator circuit breaker is tripped, the fault continues to be fed as long as the excitation will exist. For the quick removal of the fault, it is necessary to disconnect the field simultaneously with disconnection of the generator. So it is very necessary to discharge its magnetic field as soon as possible in short duration. Hence it should be ensured that all protection system not only the trip the generator circuit breaker but also trip the automatic field discharge switch. Loss of Field Protection: Loss of field occurs due to tripping of the supply of the field current which occurs because of the reasons. Loss of field to the main exciter. Accidental tripping of the field breaker. Short circuit in the field circuit. Poor brush contact in exciter. Loss of AC supply to the excitation system. Field Protection Phenomena: when the field supply is tripped, it speed increased and it start behaving as induction generator so heavy currents are produced in the teeth and wedges of the rotor. Because of the drop in excitation voltage the generator output voltage drops slowly to compensate this voltage current start increasing then generator become under excited and start drawing reactive power 2 to 4 times the generator load. Before losing excitation, the generator is delivering power to the system. But when loss of field occur this large reactive load thrown on the system abruptly with loss of generatorà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¹Ã…“s reactive power and it further causes voltage reduction and extensive instability Protection against Loss of field:If the system has capability to tolerate the difference of reactive power then automatic protection is not required but if the system will be instable in this condition and has not capability to tolerate then automatic protection is required. Under current Moving coil relay is connected across a shunt in series with field winding. But in case of large generators which operate over a wide range of field excitation then this relay will not work properly because field failure due to the failure of the excitation is not detected by it because it is held in by the ac induced from the stator. The most valid type of protection in this case is by using directional-distance type relay operating by alternating current and voltage at the generator terminals. In offset-mho relay is used and its setting is like that when the excitation goes certain value then this relay start operating because machine start running asynchronously. Its characteristics are shown on R-X diagram. When excitation is lost the generator impedance start a curve from the first quadrant to the fourth quadrant. This region is enclosed in the operating area of the relay so the relay will operate when the generator starts to slip poles and will trip the field breaker and disconnect the generator from the system. The generator may then return to service when the cause of failure is cleared. Fig: Loss of field protection Effects produced by loss of field: It can endanger the generator. Connected system or both. Loss of synchronism. Over heating of stator winding. Increased rotor losses. Pole Slipping: When angular displacement of the rotor exceeds the stability limit then rotor slips a pole pitch or we can say rotor flux slips with respect to stator flux. This condition is called pole slipping. Causes of Pole Slipping Following are the causes for pole slipping. Power system fault that persists for long duration .Connecting line between two systems is open. Because of insufficient torque that keeps rotor in synchronism. Faulty excitation system Operating errors. Pole Slipping Phenomena: Pole slipping does not occur very often when faults are cleared very fast. When pole slipping occurs due to this synchronizing power will start flowing in reverse direction twice for every slip cycle. On drawing this synchronizing power on the impedance plane the flow of it characterized by cyclic change in the load impedance and load impedance locus passes between +R and à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬R quadrants because real power flows in reverse direction. When the load impedance is very reactive in nature then two systems are 180 degree out of phase, this instant is when drawn on the jx axis the point corresponding to this instant is called transition point. At this stage only reactive power flows and system voltage reached to zero at the electrical mid point of the two systems. Mid point is that point where pole slipping take place and its location can be determined from the apparent load impedance to the point where the locus crosses the jx axis. Three parameters magnitude, direction and rate of change of load impedance with respect to the generator terminals tell us about the pole slipping, that is it taking place. Fig: Offset mho type pole protection relay Need of Pole Slipping Protection High current and torque can Loosen or causes of wear off winding. Damage shaft and coupling. Stator and rotor over heating. Excitation system damage Protection of Generator due to Unbalanced Loading: Due to fault there is an imbalance in the three phase stator currents and due to these imbalance currents, double frequency currents are induced in the rotor core. This causes the over heating of the rotor and thus the rotor damage. Unbalanced stator currents also damage the stator. Negative sequence filter provided with the over current relay is used for the protection against unbalance loading. From the theory of the symmetrical components, we know that an unbalanced three phase currents contain the negative sequence component. This negative phase sequence current causes heating of the stator. The negative heating follows the resistance law so it is proportional to the square of the current. The heating time constant usually depend upon the cooling system used and is equal to I ²t=k where I is the negative sequence current and t is the current duration in seconds and k is the constant usually lies between 3 and 20. Its general practice to use negative current relays which matches with the above heating characteristics of the generator. In this type of protection three CTs are connected to three phases and the output from the secondaries of the CTs is fed to the coil of over current relay through negative sequence filter. Negative sequence circuit consists of the resistors and capacitors and these are connected in such way that negative sequence currents flows through the relay coil. The relay can be set to operate at any particular value of the unbalance currents or the negative sequence component current. Under and Over voltage protection: Over Voltage Protection: Over voltage occurs because of the increase in the speed of the prime mover due to sudden loss in the load on the generator. Generator over voltage does not occur in the turbo generator because the control governors of the turbo generators are very sensitive to the speed variation. But the over voltage protection is required for the hydro generator or gas turbine generators. The over voltage protection is provided by two over voltage relays have two units à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ one is the instantaneous relays which is set to pick up at 130 to 150% of the rated voltage and another unit is IDMT which is set to pick up at 110% of rated voltage. Over voltage may occur due to the defective voltage regulator and also due to manual control errors. Under Voltage Protection: If more than one generators supply the load and due to some reason one generator is suddenly trip, then another generators try to supply the load. Each of these generators will experience a sudden increase in current and thus decreases the terminal voltage. Automatic voltage regulator connected to the system try to restore the voltage. And under voltage relay type-27 is also used for the under voltage protection. Under/Over Frequencies Protection: Over Frequency Operation: Over frequency results from the excess generation and it can easily be corrected by reduction in the power outputs with the help of the governor or manual control Under Frequency Operation: Under frequency occurs due to the excess. During an overload, generation capability of the generator increases and reduction in frequency occurs. The power system survives only if we drop the load so that the generator output becomes equal or greater than the connected load. If the load increases the generation, then frequency will drop and load need to shed down to create the balance between the generator and the connected load. The rate at which frequency drops depend on the time, amount of overload, on the load and generator variations as the frequency changes. Frequency decay occurs within the seconds so we can not correct it manually. Therefore automatic load shedding facility needs to be applied. These schemes drops load in steps as the frequency decays. Generally load shedding drops 20 to 50% of load in four to six frequency steps. Load shedding scheme works by tripping the substation feeders to decrease the system load. Generally automatic load shedding schemes are designed to maintain the balance between the load connected and the generator. The present practice is to use the under frequency relays at various load points so as to drop the load in steps until the declined frequency return to normal. Non essential load is removed first when decline in frequency occurs. The setting of the under frequency relays based on the most probable condition occurs and also depend upon the worst case possibilities.During the overload conditions, load shedding must occur before the operation of the under frequency relays. In other words load must be shed before the generators are tripped. Stator Over Heating: ProtectionStator over heating is caused due to the overloads and failure in cooling system. It is very difficult to detect the over heating due to the short circuiting of the lamination before any serious damage is caused. Temperature rise depend upon I^2Rt and also on the cooling. Over current relays can not detect the winding temperature because electrical protection can not detect the failure of the cooling systemSo to protect the stator against over heating, embed resistance temperature detector or thermocouples are used in the slots below the stator coils. These detectors are located on the different places in the windings so that to detect the temperature throughout the stator. Detectors which provide the indication of temperature change are arranged to operate the temperature relay to sound an alarm Stator Ground Fault Protection: The method of grounding affects the protection which is employed by the differential protection. High impedance reduces the fault currents and thus it is very difficult to detect the high impedance fault, differential protection does not work for the high impedance grounding. The separate relay to the ground neutral provides the sensitive protection. But ground relay can also detect the fault beyond the generator, it the time co-ordination is necessary to over come this difficulty. If we use the star- delta transformer bank, then it will block the flow of ground currents, thus preventing the occurrence of the fault on other side of the bank from operating ground relays. In unit protection scheme the transformer bank limits the operation of the fault relay to the generator

The Character Achilles in Homers The Iliad Essay -- Iliad essays

The Character Achilles in Homer's The Iliad "The first book of The Iliad, appropriately titled the "Rage of Achilles," sets the scene for the remainder of the epic" (selu.edu/Academics/Depts/WritingCenter/The_Growth_of_Achilles.htm). "This rage is invoked by pride, a theme of pivotal importance for the Greeks. Pride is the source of the conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon in Book 1. The incident that provoked Achilles rage took place in the tenth and final year of the Achaean attack on Troy. The king is angered by what he sees as a challenge to his authority. He is furious at Calchas for indicting Agamemnon as the cause of the plague. Rather than graciously admit his mistake, the king becomes monstrous and demands compensation for what should not have been his in the first place. He knows what he must do for the sake of the army, but he demands recognition of his privileged status as king" (gradesaver.com/ClassicNotes/Titles/iliad/summ1.htm). "Agamemnon seizes Achilles' prize, the beautiful Briseis, to sooth his own wounded pride" (selu.edu/Academics/Depts/WritingCenter/The_Growth_of_Achilles.htm). "Achilles, in turn, demands recognition of his status as the greatest warrior among the Achaeans. The loss of Briseis is not humiliating because he has any kind of romantic attachment to her. It is humiliating because she was a prize given to Achilles by Agamemnon for valor"(gradesaver.com/ClassicNotes/Titles/iliad/summ1.htm). "When Agamemnon takes her away as is technically his right to do, although it clearly violates rules of respect and honorable conduct he dishonors Achilles horribly and devalues Achilles' contributions as a warrior" (Approaches of Teaching Homer's Iliad, p37). 'Even though Achilles is correct to sugges... ... 51 Copyright (c) 2003 Fagles, Robert The Iliad Penguin Classics June 2001 Rouse, W.H. D. Homer The Iliad The Story of Achilles published by the New York American Library New York and Toronto First Published 1938 Lawall, Sarah The Norton Anthology World Masterpieces Seventh Edition Volume 1 W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. Copyright 1984 Myrsiades, Kostas Approaches to Teaching Homer's Iliad and Odyssey The Modern Language Association of America New York Fourth Printing 1993 http://www.selu.edu/Academics/Depts/WritingCenter/The_Growth_of_Achilles.htm http://classics.allinfoabout.com/articles/homer.htm http://www.thinkquest.org/library/site_sum.html?tname=23057&url=23057/iliad4.htl http://astro.temple.edu/~rguay/iliad3.pdf www.gutenberg.net/1/0/7/1/10716/10716-h/10716-h.html www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~bmaatuk/achilles.html